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Intro -- Preface -- Introduction -- Part I: Social Aspects of Opioid Use -- Part II: Pharmacological and Medical Aspects of Opioid Use -- Contents -- About the Editor -- Part I: Social Aspects of Opioid Use -- Chapter 1: A Brief History of Opioids and the Evolution of Concepts Associated with Substance Use Disorders -- 1.1 Origins of the Poppy Flower and the Use of Opium in Ancient Civilizations -- 1.2 Expansion of Opioid Use in the Middle Ages -- 1.3 From Opium Dens in Asia to Europe -- 1.3.1 Opium Use in India -- 1.3.2 Opium Use in China -- 1.3.3 The Opium Wars -- 1.4 Opium and Morphine Use in the Western: Laudanum, Dover's Powder, and Soothing Syrups -- 1.5 From Morphine Isolation to Opioid Use Restriction -- 1.5.1 The Isolation of Morphine -- 1.5.2 The Hypodermic Needle and Heroin Synthesis -- 1.5.3 The Harrison Narcotics Tax Act -- 1.6 Synthetic Opioids, Opioid Receptors, and the Discovery of Endogenous Opioid Peptides -- 1.6.1 Opioid Synthesis -- 1.6.2 Opioid Receptor Subtypes -- 1.6.3 Endogenous Opioid Peptides -- 1.7 Opioids in the Context of Globalization -- 1.8 Evolution of Concepts Associated with Substance Use Disorders -- 1.9 Conclusions -- References -- Chapter 2: The Two Sides of Opioid Use: Unmet Needs of Opioids for Pain Management and the Role of Opioids in Substance Use Disorders -- 2.1 Introduction -- 2.1.1 Background -- 2.2 Drug Markets -- 2.2.1 Unregulated Markets -- 2.2.2 Regulated Markets -- 2.3 Opioids for Pain Management -- 2.3.1 Pain Treatment Needs -- 2.3.2 Disparities in the Availability of Pain Medication -- 2.4 The Global Opioid Problem -- 2.4.1 Stigma, Discrimination, and Human Rights -- 2.4.2 Opioid Agonist Therapy (OAT) -- 2.5 Recommendations -- References -- Chapter 3: Opioid Markets and Special Populations -- 3.1 Introduction -- 3.1.1 Opioid Use -- 3.1.2 Epidemiology of Opioid Use Disorders (OUDs).
3.2 Vulnerability According to Age Groups and Gender -- 3.2.1 Drug Use Among Women -- 3.2.2 Young People -- 3.2.3 Older Adults -- 3.3 Consequences of Opioid Use -- 3.3.1 Prenatal Exposure -- 3.3.2 Children and Adolescents -- 3.4 Challenges for the Treatment of OUDs -- 3.5 Supply -- 3.5.1 Legal and Illegal Markets -- 3.5.2 Production and Traffic (Wholesaler Versus Retailer) -- 3.6 Market Characteristics -- 3.6.1 Combined Use of Opioids with Other Drugs -- 3.6.2 Indiscriminate Use of Prescription Opioid Analgesics -- 3.7 Drugs, Crime, and Violence -- 3.8 Mexico-The United States: A Complex Bilateral Relationship -- 3.9 Demand -- 3.10 Impact of COVID-19 on Opioid Supply and Demand -- 3.11 Future Challenges: Interventions and the Future of Market Regulation -- References -- Chapter 4: Toward a New Drug Policy Agreement -- 4.1 International Drug Control: Origins and Characteristics -- 4.1.1 First Steps in the Establishment of an International Drug Control System -- 4.1.2 The League of Nations in the International Drug Control Regime -- 4.1.3 International Drug Control After the Second World War -- 4.1.3.1 The Current Drug Control Regime: Three Existing Treaties -- 4.2 Drug Control Agencies of the United Nations System -- 4.2.1 The Commission on Narcotic Drugs (CND) of the Economic and Social Council -- 4.2.2 The International Narcotics Control Board (INCB) -- 4.2.3 The United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) -- 4.2.4 The World Health Organization (WHO) -- 4.3 The United Nations General Assembly on the Drug Problem and Human Rights -- 4.3.1 The United Nations Decade Against Drug Abuse: 1991-2000 -- 4.3.2 The Second UNGASS: 1998 -- 4.3.3 The Third UNGASS: 2016 -- 4.3.3.1 Meeting Progress -- 4.3.3.2 Limitations of 2016 UNGASS -- 4.3.4 Human Rights as a Key Element in Drug Control -- 4.4 International Regulations: A Hard to Change Straitjacket.
4.4.1 Main Obstacles for Content Conventions Modification -- 4.4.1.1 Existing Regulations for Convention Revisions -- 4.4.1.2 Obligations by Treaties' Signatory Countries -- 4.4.1.3 Lack of Consensus -- 4.4.2 Flexibility Margins Within the System -- 4.4.3 The Capacity of the Current International Drug Control Regime to Respond to Current Challenges -- 4.4.4 Limits of International Regulations -- 4.4.4.1 Criminalization of Drug Production and Trafficking -- 4.5 Toward a New Consensus on Drug Policy -- References -- Chapter 5: The Opioid Crises -- 5.1 Introduction -- 5.2 Opioid Misuse in the United States -- 5.2.1 The United States' Opioid Crisis in Figures -- 5.2.2 Factors Enabling the United States' Opioid Crisis -- 5.2.2.1 Opioids' Availability -- 5.2.2.2 Opioid Over-Prescription and Unethical Medical Practices -- 5.2.2.3 Inadequate Pain Management -- 5.2.3 Three Waves of Opioid Overdose Deaths in the United States -- 5.3 Opioid Misuse in Canada -- 5.3.1 Canada's Opioid Crisis in Figures -- 5.3.2 Differences and Commonalities with the Opioid Epidemic in the United States -- 5.4 High-Risk Opioid Use in Africa and Asia -- 5.4.1 Tramadol -- 5.4.2 Opioid Use in Africa -- 5.4.3 Opioid Use in Some Asian Countries -- 5.4.4 The Response to the High-Risk Tramadol Use in Africa and Asia -- 5.5 Opioid Misuse in Other Countries -- 5.6 What Have We Learned from the Opioid Crises? -- 5.6.1 Sequence of Events that Led to the Increase in Opioid Misuse -- 5.6.2 Measures to Approach the Opioid Crises -- 5.6.2.1 Harm Reduction Programs -- 5.6.2.2 Pharmacological Interventions -- 5.6.2.3 Psychosocial Interventions -- 5.6.2.4 Adequate Pain Management -- 5.6.2.5 Structural Interventions to Address Inequalities -- 5.7 Final Considerations -- References -- Chapter 6: Persons Who Misuse Opioids -- 6.1 A Person-Centered Perspective.
6.2 Life Conditions of Persons Who Inject Drugs (PWIDs) in Tijuana -- 6.2.1 The City -- 6.2.2 Drug-Using Spaces in the City -- 6.2.3 Demographic Characteristics -- 6.2.4 Housing -- 6.2.5 Work and Income -- 6.2.6 Nourishment -- 6.2.7 Access to Health-Care Services -- 6.2.8 Violence -- 6.2.8.1 Sexual Abuse -- 6.2.8.2 Domestic Violence -- 6.2.8.3 Arrests (Police) -- 6.2.9 Risks Associated with Opioid Use -- 6.2.9.1 Overdose -- 6.2.9.2 HIV/AIDS -- 6.2.9.3 HCV -- 6.2.9.4 Comorbidity Between Opioid Use and Other Mental Disorders -- 6.2.9.5 Other Health Problems (Skin Abscesses) -- 6.3 Opioid Use in Tijuana -- 6.4 Persons Who Misuse Opioids in Other World Regions -- 6.4.1 Societal Isolation and Health Risk Behavior -- 6.4.2 Police Brutality, Economic Extortion, and Sexual Violence -- 6.4.3 Opportunities, Community, and Solidarity -- 6.5 Final Considerations -- References -- Chapter 7: The Need for Structural Interventions for Persons Who Misuse Opioids -- 7.1 Overview -- 7.2 Conceptual Frameworks -- 7.2.1 Social Determinants of Health -- 7.2.2 Structural Violence -- 7.2.3 Structural Vulnerability -- 7.3 Structural Interventions -- 7.3.1 Peer Involvement -- 7.3.2 Housing Programs and Income Assistance -- 7.3.3 Access to Essential Services -- 7.3.4 Syringe Exchange Programs (SEP) -- 7.3.5 Safe Consumption Services (SCS) -- 7.3.6 Opioid-Assisted Treatment (OAT) -- 7.3.7 Naloxone Availability -- 7.3.8 Drug Checking -- 7.3.9 Safe Drug Supply -- 7.3.10 Opioid Prescription Regulations -- 7.4 Conclusions -- References -- Part II: Pharmacological and Medical Aspects of Opioid Use -- Chapter 8: Opioid Effects and Classification -- 8.1 Opioid Receptor Ligands -- 8.1.1 Natural, Semisynthetic, and Synthetic Opioids -- 8.1.2 Endogenous Opioid Peptides -- 8.2 Effects of Morphine -- 8.2.1 Central Nervous System -- 8.2.1.1 Analgesia -- 8.2.1.2 Euphoria.
8.2.1.3 Respiratory Depression and Cough Suppression -- 8.2.1.4 Nausea and Vomiting -- 8.2.1.5 Pupil Constriction -- 8.2.1.6 Seizures -- 8.2.2 Gastrointestinal System -- 8.2.3 Cardiovascular System -- 8.2.4 Neuroendocrine System -- 8.2.5 Immune System -- 8.2.6 Miscellaneous -- 8.2.6.1 Pruritus -- 8.2.6.2 Urinary Retention -- 8.3 Chemical Classification of Opioid Compounds and Main Group Effects -- 8.3.1 Phenanthrenes -- 8.3.1.1 Morphine-Like Drugs -- 8.3.1.2 Morphinans -- 8.3.2 Benzomorphans -- 8.3.3 Phenylpiperidine Opioids -- 8.3.4 Diphenylheptane Opioids -- 8.3.5 Miscellaneous -- 8.3.5.1 Oripavine Derivatives -- 8.3.5.2 Etonitazine and Other Benzimidazole Derivatives -- 8.3.5.3 Nor-binaltorphimine (Nor-BNI) -- 8.3.5.4 Tramadol -- 8.4 Selected Clinically Relevant Opioids -- 8.4.1 Opioid Receptor Agonists -- 8.4.2 Opioid Receptor Antagonists -- 8.4.3 Agonist-Antagonists and Partial Agonists/Antagonists -- 8.4.4 Inverse Agonists -- 8.5 Final Considerations -- References -- Chapter 9: Opioid Receptors and Neuronal Signal Transduction -- 9.1 Opioid Receptor Overview and Classification -- 9.1.1 Structure -- 9.1.2 Specific Features of Opioid Receptor Types and Subtypes -- 9.2 Signaling Pathways of Opioid Receptors -- 9.2.1 G Protein Pathway -- 9.2.2 Phosphorylation Patterns of Opioid Receptors -- 9.2.3 β-Arrestin Pathway -- 9.3 Mechanisms that Modulate Ligand-Opioid Receptor Complexes' Effects -- 9.3.1 Biased Agonism -- 9.3.2 Positive and Negative Allosteric Modulators -- 9.4 Structural and Molecular Aspects that Modify Opioid Receptor Signaling -- 9.4.1 Alternative Splicing -- 9.4.2 Single-Nucleotide Polymorphisms -- 9.4.3 Receptor Dimerization -- 9.5 Genetic and Epigenetic Factors in Opioid Receptor Regulation -- 9.6 Final Considerations -- References -- Chapter 10: Opioids in Pain -- 10.1 What Is Pain? -- 10.2 Types of Pain.
10.2.1 General Classification.
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Opioid Prescribing Rates and Criminal Justice and Health Outcomes [[electronic resource] /] / by Wesley G. Jennings, Nicholas Perez, Chris Delcher, Yanning Wang
