| Nota di contenuto |
Intro -- Preface -- Contents -- About the Editors -- Section Editors -- Contributors -- Part I Introduction to X-ray Astrophysics -- 1 A Chronological History of X-ray Astronomy Missions -- Contents -- Introduction -- The Early Years of X-Ray Astronomy -- Rockets and Balloons in the 1960s and 1970s -- Rockets -- Balloons -- Uhuru and the Others, Opening the Age of the Satellites in the Early 1970s -- Uhuru -- Apollo 15 and Apollo 16 -- SAS-3 -- Heao-1 -- The Late 1970s and the 1980s: The Program in the USA -- Einstein -- The Late 1970s and the 1980s: The Program in Europe -- Copernicus -- ans -- Ariel V -- Cos-b -- ariel VI -- exosat -- Late 1970s and the 1980s: The Program in Japan -- hakucho -- Hinotori -- tenma -- Ginga -- The Late 1970s and the 1980s: The Program in Russia and India -- filin/salyut-4 -- skr-02m -- xvantimir -- aryabhata -- bhaskara -- The Golden Age of X-Ray Astronomy, From the 1990s to the Present -- The Program in the USA -- ulysses -- bbxrt -- Rxte -- usa onboard argos -- The Program in Europe -- rosat -- Bepposax -- The Program in Japan -- asca -- suzaku -- hitomi -- The Program in Russia and India -- granat -- irs-p3 -- Conclusions -- Cross-References -- Appendix 1. List of the Rrockets Launched from 1957 to 1970 -- Appendix 2. List of the Balloon Missions Launched by the MIT Group -- Appendix 3. List of the Balloon Missions Launched by Worldwide Institution -- Appendix 4. Balloons Flown by AIT and MPI -- Appendix 5. Transatlantic Balloons -- References -- Part II Optics for X-ray Astrophysics -- 2 X-ray Optics for Astrophysics: A Historical Review -- Contents -- Introduction -- Early Days of X-Ray Astronomy -- The Benefit of X-Ray Optics -- Signal to Noise Advantage -- Large Dynamic Range and Less Source Confusion -- Use of High-Performance Detectors -- The Challenges of Fabricating X-Ray Optics -- X-Ray Reflection.
Optical Configuration -- Requirements on Figure and Surface -- Trades in Mirror Fabrication Approaches -- Overview of Fabrication Techniques -- Full Shell Optics -- Direct -- Replication -- Segmented Optics -- Chronological List of Mission with X-Ray Optics -- Early Days -- 1970s -- 1980s -- 1990s -- 2000s -- 2010s -- 2020s -- Future -- Conclusion -- References -- 3 Geometries for Grazing Incidence Mirrors -- Contents -- Introduction -- Origin and Adoption of the Wolter I Design -- Geometry of Wolter I -- Nesting Consideration -- Practical Considerations for a Wolter I Telescope -- Geometry of Conically Approximated Wolter I -- Impact of Figure and Other Fabrication Errors on Angular Resolution -- Geometry of Parabolic Optic, Single-Reflection Concentrator -- Wolter-Schwarzschild (WS) and Hyperboloid-Hyperboloid Telescopes -- X-Ray Optics Flown on Space Missions -- Polynomial Designs and Other Recent Innovations -- References -- 4 Lobster Eye X-ray Optics -- Contents -- Introduction -- Lobster Eye X-ray Optics -- Introduction -- Lobster Eye Telescopes Using Micro Pore Optics -- Introduction -- MPOs: Production and Design -- Design of a Narrow-Field-Optimized Lobster Eye Telescope -- Limitations of MPOs -- Current Missions -- BepiColombo -- SVOM -- Einstein Probe -- SMILE -- Lobster Eye Optics in MFO/Schmidt Arrangement -- Schmidt Objectives -- Substrates for Lobster Eye Lenses in Schmidt/MFO Arrangement -- The Application and the Future of Lobster Eye Telescopes in Schmidt Arrangements -- Lobster Eye Laboratory Modifications -- Hybrid Lobster Eye -- Space Experiments with Lobster Eye MFO X-ray Optics -- VZLUSAT-1 -- REX Rocket Experiment -- Kirkpatrick-Baez Optics -- K-B Systems in Astronomical Applications -- K-B as a Segmented Mirror -- K-B in Astronomical Telescopes: Recent Status and Future Plans -- Conclusion -- References.
5 Single-Layer and Multilayer Coatings for Astronomical X-ray Mirrors -- Contents -- Introduction -- Theory -- X-Ray Reflection and Refraction -- Surface Roughness -- Materials -- Single-Layer Thin Film Materials -- Multilayer Thin Film Materials -- Coating and Instrument Design -- Single-Layer Design -- Multilayer Design -- Depositing Thin Film Coatings -- Characterization of Thin Film Coatings -- X-Ray Reflectometry -- Other Characterization Techniques -- Environmental Stability -- Stress in Single and Multilayer Coatings -- Stress Measurement Methods -- The Stoney Equation -- A Method of In Situ Stress Measurement -- Contributions of Stress in Single-Layer Films -- Effect of Adatom Mobility -- Stress Reversal -- Methods of Reducing Film Stress -- Stress in Multilayer Thin Films -- The Effect of Surface Energy on Film Stress -- References -- 6 Silicon Pore Optics -- Contents -- Introduction -- SPO Concept -- Potential and Limitations of SPO -- SPO Realization -- Production of SPO Mirror Plates -- Development of Coatings -- Cleaning and Activation -- Stacking of Mirror Plates -- Stacking Robots -- Mirror Modules -- Ruggedisation -- X-Ray Characterization -- SPO Stack Characterization -- XOU and MM Characterization -- Athena -- Introduction -- Optical Design -- Design and Expected Performance for the Athena Optics -- Effective Area -- Vignetting -- Mirror Module Alignment -- Mirror Assembly X-Ray Characterization -- Summary and Conclusions -- References -- 7 Miniature X-ray Optics for Meter-Class Focal Length Telescopes -- Contents -- Introduction -- Existing X-Ray Optics Technology Leveraged for MiXO -- Micropore Optics -- Electroformed-Nickel-Replicated Optics -- Design, Development, and Challenges in Miniature X-Ray Optics -- Wolter Optics Design and Modeling -- Ray Tracing -- ENR and Metal-Ceramic Hybrid MiXO -- Recent X-Ray Tests and Results.
Testing MiXO Optics -- Performance of ENR MiXO -- Mission Concepts Using Miniature X-Ray Optics -- Mercury Imaging X-Ray Spectrometer Onboard BepiColombo -- Lunar X-Ray Imaging Spectrometer (LuXIS) -- SmallSat Exosphere Explorer of Hot Jupiters (SEEJ) -- SmallSat Solar X-Ray Activity and Axion X-Ray Imager (SSAXI) -- Conclusion -- References -- 8 Diffraction-Limited Optics and Techniques -- Contents -- Introduction -- Focal Length -- Diffraction-Limited X-Ray Optics -- Reflecting Optics -- Transmitting Optics -- X-Ray Lens Design and Performance -- Zone Plates -- Interferometers -- An X-Ray Interferometer -- A Slatted Mirror -- The Fringe Pattern -- Simulation of One-Dimensional Imaging -- Tolerances, Alignment, and Adjustment -- An X-Ray Interferometer with Focusing -- Proposed X-Ray Interferometers -- Cross-References -- References -- 9 Collimators for X-ray Astronomical Optics -- Contents -- Introduction -- Stray Light and Baffle Design -- Classification of the Stray Light -- No Reflection -- Primary-Only Reflection -- Secondary-Only Reflection -- Backside Reflection -- Advanced Analytical Treatment -- Design of the Stray-Light Baffle -- XMM-Newton -- Suzaku and Hitomi -- Suzaku Pre-collimator -- Optical Tuning -- On-Ground and In-Orbit X-Ray Calibrations -- Hitomi Pre-collimator -- eROSITA -- Future Missions -- Conclusion -- References -- 10 Technologies for Advanced X-ray Mirror Fabrication -- Contents -- Introduction -- X-Ray Mirror Fabrication: Fundamentals -- Manufacturing Methodologies -- X-Ray Mirror Manufacture and Technology -- Angular Resolution Versus Effective Area -- Production Drivers for Future X-Ray Telescopes -- Evaluating Optical Surfaces -- Terminology: Basics -- Terminology: Optical Surface -- Materials -- Section Review -- Subtractive -- Polishing: General -- Polishing: Robotic -- Ion Beam Figuring -- Subtractive: Silicon.
Silicon Pore Optics -- Monocrystalline Silicon Meta-shell X-Ray Optics -- Formative -- Electroforming -- Slumping -- Differential Deposition -- Fabricative -- Active/Adjustable Optics -- Additive -- Additive Manufacture -- Conclusion -- References -- 11 Diffraction Gratings for X-ray Astronomy -- Contents -- Introduction: Diffraction Gratings -- General Considerations -- Physical Principles -- Astrophysical Application -- Implementation on Focusing X-Ray Telescopes: Slitless Spectrometers, the Rowland Circle, and Variable Line Density Gratings -- Examples from Chandra and XMM-Newton -- Manufacturing Techniques -- Innovative Gratings: Off-Plane Reflection Gratings and the Critical Angle Transmission Grating -- Off-Plane Reflection Gratings: High Dispersion and High Efficiency -- The Critical Angle Transmission Grating: High Efficiency Combined with Generic Simplicity of a Transmission Grating -- Future Diffraction Grating X-Ray Spectrometers -- ARCUS -- Lynx -- References -- 12 Active X-ray Optics for Astronomy -- Contents -- Introduction -- Corrections with Active Optics -- Improving Mirror Figure -- Active Mounting and Alignment -- Prescription Switching -- Characterizing Corrections During Calibration and Flight -- Actuator Technologies -- External Bonded Actuators -- Thin-Film Actuators -- Magnetic Smart Material (MSM) Optics -- Assessing Correctability -- Finite-Element Modeling -- Influence Functions -- Wavefront Reconstruction -- Calculating Theoretical Correctability -- Metrology and Model Assessment -- Mission-Level Applications of Active X-ray Optics -- Gen-X -- SMART-X -- Lynx -- Conclusion -- References -- 13 Facilities for X-ray Optics Calibration -- Contents -- Introduction -- X Versus UV Light -- Source Distance -- Vacuum -- Europe -- The PANTER X-Ray Test Facility at MPE (Germany) -- The XACT Facility at Palermo (Italy).
The Leicester Long Beamline Test Facility (UK).
|
Info
Black Holes: A Laboratory for Testing Strong Gravity [[electronic resource] /] / by Cosimo Bambi
